TRANSLATION ANALYSIS OF THE CZECH PREPOSITION „NA“
Table of Contents
1 Characteristic of the Preposition „na“
2 Prototypical Equivalents of „na“ in English
3 Review of Translation Techniques
4 Methodology
4.1 Sample Description
4.2 Number of Items and Method of their Selection
4.3 Working Hypothesis
5 Analysis of Results
5.1 „na“ – Preposition of Space
5.2 „na“ – Preposition of Time
5.3 „na“ – Preposition of Respect
5.4. „na“ – Preposition of Purpose
5.5. „na“ – Preposition denoting Subject Matter
5.6. Usage of „na“ in Idioms
6. Conclusion
1 Characteristic of the Preposition „na“
The Czech preposition „na“ falls into the category of primary prepositions. The complement of this preposition may either be in the accusative or in the local depending on the kind of meaning used in the particular context. „na“ is a polyfunctional preposition and may be described as having at least eight different categorial meanings: space, time, purpose, measure, result, subject matter, standard and norm, and finally respect. If it is used in its spatial meaning „na“ may be used to denote both position (with the loc.) and destination (with the accusative).
Czech grammarians also describe prepositions in terms of the bivalent property contact – lack of contact. From this point of view „na“ may be used in both meanings.
„na“ also forms an element of many secondary prepositions.
2 Prototypical Equivalents of „na“ in English
As regards the prototypical equivalents of “na”, Ivan Poldauf´s dictionary lists the following thirteen English prepositions: on, upon, to, into, as far as, down/up to, at, in, along, for, within, with. In Poldauf’s conception the treatment of this preposition is divided into three groups according to the grammatical use in Czech, i.e. according to the nominal casesfollowing „na“. As this might be good for the orientation of the dictionary user, there is considerable overlapping between the equivalents so that it eventually does not help to learn the proper use of the equivalents.
3 Review of Translation Techniques
Many different translation techniques may be used for translating a stretch of text from one language into another. Basically, the various techniques help the translator to cope with two phenomena: differences between the source language (ST) and target language, and the differences between source culture and target culture.
Here, 15 common translation techniques are briefly listed. The basic word-for-word substitution is called equivalence. As equivalence is not always possible to use, more frequently we encounter the one-to-many relationship, analogy. On the level of phrase, an item-by-item literal translation is termed calque. A similar technique, literal translation involves only necessary grammatical changes in the TL but otherwise the text appears without any other changes. One of the possible solutions for translating idiomatic expressions is substitution which is a functional replacement of a group of words for other words that have approximately equal expressional value. If there is no suitable expression for a certain reality, the TL may borrow the form and/or meaning from the SL. If the referent does not exist in the target culture, the translator may employ adaptation, thus using different means to achieve at least approximately similar sense and meaning. Different cultural facts are also reflected in explication, i.e. what is only implied in the SL is fully expressed in the TL. Simplification happens when the translator fails to ‘translate‘ the whole meaning of the text. Amplification and reduction are used in order to achieve a certain balance between the knowledge presupposed in the source culture and the target culture. Due to various structural differences between the SL and TL, transposition, re-ordering (the complex vs simple sentences movement) or modulation (change of the notional view on the same fact of reality) may be needed in translation of a text. Structural differences between languages may account also for the usage of diffusion (expressing a piece of information in a longer, diffused way) and condensation. Compensation is used when an item in the SL is not translatable.
(After Rudiments of English Linguistics II)
4 Methodology
4.1 Sample Description
The source text of the translation examples analysed in this paper is a contemporary piece of fiction, the novel Výchova dívek v Čechách by Michal Viewegh and its parallel translation by A.Brain Bringing up Girls in Bohemia. Stylistically the text contains mainly colloquial Czech.
4.2 Number of Items and Method of Selection
Fifty items have been selected from the text in such a way as to show the great variety of possible equivalents of the preposition “na“ in the the English language. From that follows that this paper will not provide any reliable statistical data as far as the frequency of individual equivalents in the target language is concerned.
4.3 Working Hypothesis
The items will be examined according to the categorial meanings they fall into in Czech. The analysis shall show whether there is a correspondence in the Czech and English expressions of the eight meanings of „na“ found in the source text. In addition to that, focus will be put on the question whether the syntactic function of the prepositional phrase of which the preposition „na“ is the constituent, plays an important role in choosing the English equivalent.
5 Analysis of Results
5.1 „na“ – Preposition of Space
The first part of the analysis deals with the spatial meaning of the preposition „na“ as it was the most frequent meaning of „na“ in the analysed text. It is used both to denote position and destination, the meanings being distinguished by the case of the nominal phrase functioning as the prepositional complement. Positional, or static, usage is signalled by the accusative while the dynamic meaning is indicated by the locative. As Quirk points out in the CGEL, the former meaning is usually expressed by in, at or on in Standard English. Examples (1), (2) and (3) show this usage.
(1) mám na stole korektury románu - I have the page proofs of a novel on my desk
(2) na Praze 5 - in Prague 5
(3) má za sebou první rok na Filozofické Fakultě - she had already spent a year at the arts faculty
This also applies to the metaphoric static usage as in example (4).
(4) je na útěku - he was on the run
If destination is expressed by the preposition „na“ the usual equivalents in standard English are to, onto and into, these forming a set of prepositions parallel to at, on, in.
(5) proč musíme na výchovný koncert - why do we have to go to an educational concert
(6) vyšel jsem proto na chodbu - so I went out into the passage
(7) padá z něj na hromadu uhlí - falling from it onto a pile of coal
This usage, however, should be described as a tendency rather than as a rule. Examples (8) and (9) show the dynamic use of on.
(8) lízátko nalepila na Magazín Blesku - stuck the lollipop on the coloured supplement
(9) se opatrně sesunul na hromadu - sat down cautiously on the pile
Examples (10) and (11) show a difference in understanding the location of an object in Czech and English. Consequently, less frequent equivalents are chosen in the translation.
(10) na trámech visely umělé rybářské sítě - from the beams there hung imitation fishing nets
(11) v tričku na jejím nahém těle – a T-shirt over her naked body
It seems that the crucial factor for choosing on vs. onto is the semantics of the verb. Strnadová in Mluvnice současné angličtiny na pozadí češtiny points out that if the destination meaning is present in the semantics of the verb, it typically will not appear in the preposition.
As far as the choice between at, on and in is concerned, the explanation here presented is taken from CGEL. At is used to refer to location specified in terms of point, i.e. the locator is understood not as an area or volume but as a point. On is used to denote the location of an item on a line or surface. Position in a three-dimensional space is usually described by means of the preposition in.
Other possibilities of translation of na in its spatial meaning which are less typical included the omission of the preposition in English due to the characteristic of the verb (12) and the use of the preposition round indicating a different understanding of the location ‘neck’, illustrated in (13):
(12) zaťukal si na čelo – he tapped his forehead
(13) na krk mi skočila Agáta – Agata flung herself round my neck
Another solution that English as an analytical language offers, is the construction with a locative subject. This allows the preservation of the functional sentence perspective and the adverbial thus remains thematic in the English sentence, viz example (14).
(14) natáhl si bílé ponožky Adidas – na každé byly tři zelené proužky – He pulled on a pair of white Adidas socks – each of which bore three green stripes
The result is that the PP is transformed into a NP in English.
Example (15) shows against as a possible equivalent of na. The interesting point here is that the English preposition is more explicit as regards the negative connotations of the expression.
(15) vztáhnout ruku na nevinný hudební nástroj – raising a hand against a harmless musical instrument
5.2 „na“ – Preposition of Time
In Czech „na“ is used to express the location in time as well as duration. The English equivalents include during, on, at, to, for, towards. Location in time is illustrated by the following two examples.
(16) na Štědrý večer – on Christmas Day
(17) na počátku onoho léta – at the beginning of that summer
A period of time is typically expressed by during and for.
(18) na vojně – during my army days
(19) na dlouhé minuty – for a good few minutes
Even here, however, the situation is not straightforward and in other expressions, semantically analogous, a completely different structure is chosen in English involving the replacement of the whole phrase as in (20).
(20) na tak dlouho, dokud ... – just long enough to...
Sometimes one of the equivalents contains an additional semantic feature that is not present in the other language. In (21), the Czech preposition na is used to denote a point in time whereas the English equivalent towards implies a stretch of time, a period of time including the point denoted by its Czech counterpart.
(21) většinou se na konci každé dovolené už trochu nudím – usually I start to get a bit bored
towards the end of a vacation
Due to structural differences between the languages, a diffused structure is sometimes preferred in English as in (22).
(22) na odchodu z kuchyně – as she left the kitchen
Example (23) shows that even the indefinite article, where it still retains its numerical meaning, may be an adequate equivalent of a preposition.
(23) dvě stě padesát marek na den – two hundred and fifty Deutschmarks a day
5.3 „na“ – Preposition of Respect
Three examples were found in the text in which the preposition „na“ expressed the meaning of respect. The English equivalents chosen by the translator were on, to and for as shown in examples (24), (25), (26), (27) and (28).
(24) moje slova měla na manžele Královy nepředvídaný účinek – my words had an unexpected effect on the couple
(25) z přílišných ohledů na čtenáře – out of excessive considerations for the reader
(26) musíte být na dědečka hodní – you have to be nice to Grandad
(27) na danou roční dobu byla hodně opálená – she was very tanned for the time of year
(28) byla jsem na něj asi moc free – I was too free for his taste
The choice of the preposition in (24) and (25) is determined by the head noun (effect and considerations, respectively) to which the prepositional phrase functions as postmodification. In (26) the PP is an adjectival complementation and thus it is the adjective that determines the choice of the preposition.
Examples (27) and (28) illustrate a different case, the PP phrase does not have the postmodifying function as in the previous examples, but syntactically it is an adjunct. Therefore, we may say that in that respect it is an autonomous unit, which may be regarded as a pattern in which the form for + NP and the meaning (contrastive, ‘considering’) will be unaffected in various contexts. Examples belonging to the same paradigm might include For her age she is very mature – na svůj věk byla velmi zralá, he had too much money for a young man Měl příliš mnoho peněz na mladého muže etc.
5.4. „na“ – Preposition of Purpose
The prepositional phrases with „na“ in the meaning of purpose were of two kinds in the analysed text. Either the PP functioned as a postmodification of a NP or as an adjunct. In the case of nominal postmodification, the structure in English was either analogous to the Czech one, with the preposition for (29), or the infinitive of purpose was used (30) or the noun complementing na in Czech was used as a syntactic adjective in the place of a premodifier (31), (32).
(29) stojany na potřebné přenosné tabule - easels for the much needed portable blackboards
(30) tři dny na rozmyšlenou – three days to think it over
(31) růžových činek na aerobic – pink aerobic dumb-bells
(32) schránka na dopisy – letter box
PP functioning as adjunct in Czech was realised by an adverb, a PP or even an interrogative pronoun in English.
(33) kývl na srozuměnou – he nodded understandingly
(34) kývl na znamení souhlasu – he nodded in agreement
(35) na co? – why?
5.5. „na“ – Preposition denoting Subject Matter
Where the preposition na expresses subject matter, the English equivalent prepositions were to and of. In other cases a different structure was chosen, such as diffusion in (38).
(36) Óda na radost – Ode to Joy
(37) recenze na Báječná léta – reviews of Those Beautiful Rotten Years
(38) vykašlete se na rajskou – forget the tomato sauce
(39) o mém návrhu na přizvání bytového architekta – my suggestion that we call in an interior designer
5.6. Usage of „na“ in Idioms
An idiom is a formally complex lexical unit that cannot be further divided for the purpose of translation from which follows that the process of translation is accomplished on the level of the whole clause, not on the level of individual elements.
(40) promluvme si na rovinu – lets level with each other
(41) a proto neklesej na mysli – so don’t lose heart
(42) přijít celé věci na kloub – to get to the root of the matter
6. Conclusion
The main linguistic argument concerning prepositions is whether the preposition is part of the verb phrase or part of the noun phrase. Compromise solutions have been suggested such as those describing the prepositional phrase as operating as a transition between the VP and the NP. This argument is important also for the translation science.
In some cases it is clear that the preposition creates one semantic and lexical unit with the verb as examples (43) and (44) illustrate.
(43) já tak čekávám na svou dceru – I also wait for my daughter
(44) trvala však na mé odpovědi – she insisted on a reply, however
In such examples, it is the verb that unambiguously determines the choice of the preposition.
In other examples it is reasonable to regard the preposition as part of the NP, the preposition being governed by the noun as in example (45).
(45) nezdolatelná chuť na zmrzlinový pohár – an everwhelming craving for an ice cream sundae
The objection to this, however, is that craving is a deverbal noun and as such it retains the verbal feature of valency. The next examples on the other hand clearly show that the element governing the choice of preposition is a noun.
(46) názory na vraždu – views on murder
(47) z přílišných ohledů na čtenáře – out of excessive considerations for the reader
In many cases the relationship is not a straighforward one and we may describe it that the preposition is a shared element and the choice of a particular preposition is influenced both by the VP and the NP.
Moreover, there seems to be a dividing line in this respect between prepositional phrases operating as postmodifiers of NPs, those operating as prepositional objects of verbs and those functioning as adjuncts. The former two groups of cases will always be harder to describe systemically as it is the noun and the verb, respectively, that determines the choice of the preposition. The prepositions in adjunct are more autonomous, as the ‘head’ governing the preposition is missing. However, the factor of the semantics of the verb is still present, at least in the binary opposition of stative vs dynamic use.
The difficulty in translation and learning of prepositions in a foreign language is due to the fact that the choice of a preposition is a complex process, the result of which is influenced by many factors. Some of the prominent factors have been mentioned: the syntactic function of the PP of which the particular preposition is a part, the semantics of the verb and other clausal elements. As the distribution of the meaning may be realised in different ways in the SL and the TL, it may happen that the preposition carries a different semantic load in the particular sentence and its translation to the TL. Example (48) has been chosen for the illustration of this phenomenon:
(48) Teprve jednoho mrazivého podvečera na konci února jsem ji konečně potkal. – It was not until the end of February, however, early one frosty evening after leaving work, that I eventually saw her in person.
The expected equivalent of na konci února ‘at the end of February‘ does not appear in the translation of this sentence because English does not have a proper one-word equivalent of teprve which has consequences for the structure of the whole sentence. The meaning of teprve is diffused into the structrure be not until ... that and thus it leaves no space for the standard equivalent.
Another example where the distribution of the meaning is varying is (49) where again the consequence is the choice of an unexpected prepositional equivalent.
(49) zmizela na odvrácené straně vily – she disappeared behind the villa
The preposition behind carries the meaning of two lexical words in the source sentence.
Example (50) shows that in Czech the preposition is a part of the postmodifying PP whereas in English the PP functions as the complementation of the verb and thus the head of the preposition is the verb, unlike in Czech.
(50) tlak na ledviny zmizel – the pressure vanished from my kidneys
Altogether, 16 different English prepositions have been found in the analysed text, namely in, at, on, into, to, onto, from, over, round, against, for, towards, during, of, until, behind. Other equivalents included the indefinite article and various syntactic structures different from those in the SL.
In conclusion it should be said that in most cases, we do no ‘translate’ a preposition. We translate the lexical words in a sentence and subsequently calculate from the relations between them the suitable preposition.
Bibliography
Dušková, Libuše. Mluvnice současné angličtiny na pozadí češtiny. Praha: Academia, 1994
Akademická mluvnice češtiny. Praha: Academia, 1993
Poldauf, Ivan. Velký česko-anglický slovník. Čelákovice: WD Publications, 1997
Quirk et al., A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
Rudiments of English Linguistics II. Ed. by Štekauer, Pavol and Kavky, Stanislav. Prešov: FF PU, 2003